中华人民共和国民法通则(附英文)

全国人大

【颁布日期】 19860412

【实施日期】 19870101

【名称】 中华人民共和国民法通则

【名称】 GENERAL PRINCIPLESOF THE CIVIL LAW OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OFCHINA

【题注】 （一九八六年四月十二日第六届全国人民代表大会第四次会议通过） 中华人民共和国主席令 第三十七号

《中华人民共和国民法通则》已由中华人民共和国第六届全国人民代表大会第四次会议于一九八六年四月十二日通过，现予公布，自一九八七年一月一日起施行。

中华人民共和国主席 李先念

一九八六年四月十二日

目 录

第一章 基本原则

第二章 公民（自然人）

第一节民事权利能力和民事行为能力

第二节 监护

第三节 宣告失踪和宣告死亡

第四节 个体工商户、农村承包经营户

第五节 个人合伙

第三章 法人

第一节 一般规定

第二节 企业法人

第三节 机关、事业单位和社会团体法人

第四节 联营

第四章 民事法律行为和代理

第一节 民事法律行为

第二节 代理

第五章 民事权利

第一节 财产所有权和与财产所有权有关的 财产权

第二节 债权

第三节 知识产权

第四节 人身权

第六章 民事责任

第一节 一般规定

第二节 违反合同的民事责任

第三节 侵权的民事责任

第四节 承担民事责任的方式

第七章 诉讼时效

第八章 涉外民事关系的法律适用

第九章 附则

第一章 基本原则

第一条 为了保障公民、法人的合法的民事权益，正确调整民事关系，适应社会主义现代化建设事业发展的需要，根据宪法和我国实际情况，总结民事活动的实践经验，制定本法。

第二条 中华人民共和国民法调整平等主体的公民之间、法人之间、公民和法人之间的财产关系和人身关系。

第三条 当事人在民事活动中的地位平等。

第四条 民事活动应当遵循自愿、公平、等价有偿、诚实信用的原则。

第五条 公民、法人的合法的民事权益受法律保护，任何组织和个人不得侵犯。

第六条 民事活动必须遵守法律，法律没有规定的，应当遵守国家政策。

第七条 民事活动应当尊重社会公德，不得损害社会公共利益，破坏国家经济计划，扰乱社会经济秩序。

第八条 在中华人民共和国领域内的民事活动，适用中华人民共和国法律，法律另有规定的除外。本法关于公民的规定，适用于在中华人民共和国领域内的外国人、无国籍人，法律另有规定的除外。

第二章 公民（自然人）

第一节 民事权利能力和民事行为能力

第九条 公民从出生时起到死亡时止，具有民事权利能力，依法享有民事权利，承担民事义务。

第十条 公民的民事权利能力一律平等。

第十一条 十八周岁以上的公民是成年人，具有完全民事行为能力，可以独立进行民事活动，是完全民事行为能力人。十六周岁以上不满十八周岁的公民，以自己的劳动收入为主要生活来源的，视为完全民事行为能力人。

第十二条 十周岁以上的未成年人是限制民事行为能力人，可以进行与他的年龄、智力相适应的民事活动；其他民事活动由他的法定代理人代理，或者征得他的法定代理人的同意。不满十周岁的未成年人是无民事行为能力人，由他的法定代理人代理民事活动。

第十三条 不能辨认自己行为的精神病人是无民事行为能力人，由他的法定代理人代理民事活动。不能完全辨认自己行为的精神病人是限制民事行为能力人，可以进行与他的精神健康状况相适应的民事活动；其他民事活动由他的法定代理人代理，或者征得他的法定代理人的同意。

第十四条 无民事行为能力人、限制民事行为能力人的监护人是他的法定代理人。

第十五条 公民以他的户籍所在地的居住地为住所，经常居住地与住所不一致的，经常居住地视为住所。　

第二节 监 护

第十六条 未成年人的父母是未成年人的监护人。未成年人的父母已经死亡或者没有监护能力的，由下列人员中有监护能力的人担任监护人：

（一）祖父母、外祖父母；

（二）兄、姐；

（三）关系密切的其他亲属、朋友愿意承担监护责任，经未成年人的父、母的所在单位或者未成年人住所地的居民委员会、村民委员会同意的。对担任监护人有争议的，由未成年人的父、母的所在单位或者未成年人住所地的居民委员会、村民委员会在近亲属中指定。对指定不服提起诉讼的，由人民法院裁决。没有第一款、第二款规定的监护人的，由未成年人的父、母的所在单位或者未成年人住所地的居民委员会、村民委员会或者民政部门担任监护人。

第十七条 无民事行为能力或者限制民事行为能力的精神病人，由下列人员担任监护人： （一）配偶； （二）父母； （三）成年子女； （四）其他近亲属； （五）关系密切的其他亲属、朋友愿意承担监护责任，经精神病人的所在单位或者住所地的居民委员会、村民委员会同意的。对担任监护人有争议的，由精神病人的所在单位或者住所地的居民委员会、村民委员会在近亲属中指定。对指定不服提起诉讼的，由人民法院裁决。没有第一款规定的监护人的，由精神病人的所在单位或者住所地的居民委员会、村民委员会或者民政部门担任监护人。

第十八条 监护人应当履行监护职责，保护被监护人的人身、财产及其他合法权益，除为被监护人的利益外，不得处理被监护人的财产。监护人依法履行监护的权利，受法律保护。监护人不履行监护职责或者侵害被监护人的合法权益的，应当承担责任；给被监护人造成财产损失的，应当赔偿损失。人民法院可以根据有关人员或者有关单位的申请，撤销监护人的资格。

第十九条 精神病人的利害关系人，可以向人民法院申请宣告精神病人为无民事行为能力人或者限制民事行为能力人。被人民法院宣告为无民事行为能力人或者限制民事行为能力人的，根据他健康恢复的状况，经本人或者利害关系人申请，人民法院可以宣告他为限制民事行为能力人或者完全民事行为能力人。

第三节 宣告失踪和宣告死亡

第二十条 公民下落不明满二年的，利害关系人可以向人民法院申请宣告他为失踪人。战争期间下落不明的，下落不明的时间从战争结束之日起计算。

第二十一条 失踪人的财产由他的配偶、父母、成年子女或者关系密切的其他亲属、朋友代管。代管有争议的，没有以上规定的人或者以上规定的人无能力代管的，由人民法院指定的人代管。失踪人所欠税款、债务和应付的其他费用，由代管人从失踪人的财产中支付。

第二十二条 被宣告失踪的人重新出现或者确知他的下落，经本人或者利害关系人申请，人民法院应当撤销对他的失踪宣告。

第二十三条 公民有下列情形之一的，利害关系人可以向人民法院申请宣告他死亡：

（一）下落不明满四年的；

（二）因意外事故下落不明，从事故发生之日起满二年的。战争期间下落不明的，下落不明的时间从战争结束之日起计算。

第二十四条 被宣告死亡的人重新出现或者确知他没有死亡，经本人或者利害关系人申请，人民法院应当撤销对他的死亡宣告。有民事行为能力人在被宣告死亡期间实施的民事法律行为有效。

第二十五条 被撤销死亡宣告的人有权请求返还财产。依照继承法取得他的财产的公民或者组织，应当返还原物；原物不存在的，给予适当补偿。

第四节个体工商户、农村承包经营户

第二十六条 公民在法律允许的范围内，依法经核准登记，从事工商业经营的，为个体工商户。个体工商户可以起字号。

第二十七条 农村集体经济组织的成员，在法律允许的范围内，按照承包合同规定从事商品经营的，为农村承包经营户。

第二十八条 个体工商户、农村承包经营户的合法权益，受法律保护。

第二十九条 个体工商户、农村承包经营户的债务，个人经营的，以个人财产承担；家庭经营的，以家庭财产承担。

第五节 个人合伙

第三十条 个人合伙是指两个以上公民按照协议，各自提供资金、实物、技术等，合伙经营、共同劳动。

第三十一条 合伙人应当对出资数额、盈余分配、债务承担、入伙、退伙、合伙终止等事项，订立书面协议。

第三十二条 合伙人投入的财产，由合伙人统一管理和使用。合伙经营积累的财产，归合伙人共有。

第三十三条 个人合伙可以起字号，依法经核准登记，在核准登记的经营范围内从事经营。

第三十四条 个人合伙的经营活动，由合伙人共同决定，合伙人有执行和监督的权利。合伙人可以推举负责人。合伙负责人和其他人员的经营活动，由全体合伙人承担民事责任。

第三十五条 合伙的债务，由合伙人按照出资比例或者协议的约定，以各自的财产承担清偿责任。合伙人对合伙的债务承担连带责任，法律另有规定的除外。偿还合伙债务超过自己应当承担数额的合伙人，有权向其他合伙人追偿。

第三章 法 人

第一节 一般规定

第三十六条 法人是具有民事权利能力和民事行为能力，依法独立享有民事权利和承担民事义务的组织。法人的民事权利能力和民事行为能力，从法人成立时产生，到法人终止时消灭。

第三十七条 法人应当具备下列条件：

（一）依法成立；

（二）有必要的财产或者经费；

（三）有自己的名称、组织机构和场所；

（四）能够独立承担民事责任。

第三十八条 依照法律或者法人组织章程规定，代表法人行使职权的负责人，是法人的法定代表人。

第三十九条 法人以它的主要办事机构所在地为住所。

第四十条 法人终止，应当依法进行清算，停止清算范围外的活动。

第二节 企业法人

第四十一条 全民所有制企业、集体所有制企业有符合国家规定的资金数额，有组织章程、组织机构和场所，能够独立承担民事责任，经主管机关核准登记，取得法人资格。在中华人民共和国领域内设立的中外合资经营企业、中外合作经营企业和外资企业，具备法人条件的，依法经工商行政管理机关核准登记，取得中国法人资格。

第四十二条 企业法人应当在核准登记的经营范围内从事经营。

第四十三条企业法人对它的法定代表人和其他工作人员的经营活动，承担民事责任。

第四十四条 企业法人分立、合并或者有其他重要事项变更，应当向登记机关办理登记并公告。企业法人分立、合并，它的权利和义务由变更后的法人享有和承担。

第四十五条 企业法人由于下列原因之一终止：

（一）依法被撤销；

（二）解散；

（三）依法宣告破产；

（四）其他原因。

第四十六条 企业法人终止，应当向登记机关办理注销登记并公告。

第四十七条 企业法人解散，应当成立清算组织，进行清算。企业法人被撤销、被宣告破产的，应当由主管机关或者人民法院组织有关机关和有关人员成立清算组织，进行清算。

第四十八条 全民所有制企业法人以国家授予它经营管理的财产承担民事责任。集体所有制企业法人以企业所有的财产承担民事责任。中外合资经营企业法人、中外合作经营企业法人和外资企业法人以企业所有的财产承担民事责任，法律另有规定的除外。

第四十九条 企业法人有下列情形之一的，除法人承担责任外，对法定代表人可以给予行政处分、罚款，构成犯罪的，依法追究刑事责任：

（一）超出登记机关核准登记的经营范围从事非法经营的；

（二）向登记机关、税务机关隐瞒真实情况、弄虚作假的；

（三）抽逃资金、隐匿财产逃避债务的；

（四）解散、被撤销、被宣告破产后，擅自处理财产的；

（五）变更、终止时不及时申请办理登记和公告，使利害关系人遭受重大损失的；

（六）从事法律禁止的其他活动，损害国家利益或者社会公共利益的。

第三节 机关、事业单位和社会团体法人

第五十条 有独立经费的机关从成立之日起，具有法人资格。具备法人条件的事业单位、社会团体，依法不需要办理法人登记的，从成立之日起，具有法人资格；依法需要办理法人登记的，经核准登记，取得法人资格。

第四节 联 营

第五十一条 企业之间或者企业、事业单位之间联营，组成新的经济实体，独立承担民事责任、具备法人条件的，经主管机关核准登记，取得法人资格。

第五十二条 企业之间或者企业、事业单位之间联营，共同经营、不具备法人条件的，由联营各方按照出资比例或者协议的约定，以各自所有的或者经营管理的财产承担民事责任。依照法律的规定或者协议的约定负连带责任的，承担连带责任。

第五十三条企业之间或者企业、事业单位之间联营，按照合同的约定各自独立经营的，它的权利和义务由合同约定，各自承担民事责任。　

第四章 民事法律行为和代理

第一节 民事法律行为

第五十四条 民事法律行为是公民或者法人设立、变更、终止民事权利和民事义务的合法行为。

第五十五条 民事法律行为应当具备下列条件：

（一）行为人具有相应的民事行为能力；

（二）意思表示真实；

（三）不违反法律或者社会公共利益。

第五十六条 民事法律行为可以采取书面形式、口头形式或者其他形式。法律规定是特定形式的，应当依照法律规定。

第五十七条 民事法律行为从成立时起具有法律约束力。行为人非依法律规定或者取得对方同意，不得擅自变更或者解除。

第五十八条 下列民事行为无效：

（一）无民事行为能力人实施的；

（二）限制民事行为能力人依法不能独立实施的；

（三）一方以欺诈、胁迫的手段或者乘人之危，使对方在违背真实意思的情况下所为的；

（四）恶意串通，损害国家、集体或者第三人利益的；

（五）违反法律或者社会公共利益的；

（六）经济合同违反国家指令性计划的；

（七）以合法形式掩盖非法目的的。无效的民事行为，从行为开始起就没有法律约束力。

第五十九条 下列民事行为，一方有权请求人民法院或者仲裁机关予以变更或者撤销：

（一）行为人对行为内容有重大误解的；

（二）显失公平的。被撤销的民事行为从行为开始起无效。

第六十条 民事行为部分无效，不影响其他部分的效力的，其他部分仍然有效。

第六十一条 民事行为被确认为无效或者被撤销后，当事人因该行为取得的财产，应当返还给受损失的一方。有过错的一方应当赔偿对方因此所受的损失，对方都有过错的，应当各自承担相应的责任。双方恶意串通，实施民事行为损害国家的、集体的或者第三人的利益的，应当追缴双方取得的财产，收归国家、集体所有或者返还第三人。

第六十二条 民事法律行为可以附条件，附条件的民事法律行为在符合所附条件时生效。

第二节 代理

第六十三条 公民、法人可以通过代理人实施民事法律行为。代理人在代理权限内，以被代理人的名义实施民事法律行为。被代理人对代理人的代理行为，承担民事责任。依照法律规定或者按照双方当事人约定，应当由本人实施的民事法律行为，不得代理。

第六十四条 代理包括委托代理、法定代理和指定代理。委托代理人按照被代理人的委托行使代理权，法定代理人依照法律的规定行使代理权，指定代理人按照人民法院或者指定单位的指定行使代理权。

第六十五条 民事法律行为的委托代理，可以用书面形式，也可以用口头形式。法律规定用书面形式的，应当用书面形式。书面委托代理的授权委托书应当载明代理人的姓名或者名称、代理事项、权限和期间，并由委托人签名或者盖章。委托书授权不明的，被代理人应当向第三人承担民事责任，代理人负连带责任。

第六十六条 没有代理权、超越代理权或者代理权终止后的行为，只有经过被代理人的追认，被代理人才承担民事责任。未经追认的行为，由行为人承担民事责任。本人知道他人以本人名义实施民事行为而不作否认表示的，视为同意。代理人不履行职责而给被代理人造成损害的，应当承担民事责任。代理人和第三人串通，损害被代理人的利益的，由代理人和第三人负连带责任。第三人知道行为人没有代理权、超越代理权或者代理权已终止还与行为人实施民事行为给他人造成损害的，由第三人和行为人负连带责任。

第六十七条 代理人知道被委托代理的事项违法仍然进行代理活动的，或者被代理人知道代理人的代理行为违法不表示反对的，由被代理人和代理人负连带责任。

第六十八条 委托代理人为被代理人的利益需要转托他人代理的，应当事先取得被代理人的同意。事先没有取得被代理人同意的，应当在事后及时告诉被代理人，如果被代理人不同意，由代理人对自己所转托的人的行为负民事责任，但在紧急情况下，为了保护被代理人的利益而转托他人代理的除外。

第六十九条 有下列情形之一的，委托代理终止：

（一）代理期间届满或者代理事务完成；

（二）被代理人取消委托或者代理人辞去委托；

（三）代理人死亡；

（四）代理人丧失民事行为能力；

（五）作为被代理人或者代理人的法人终止。

第七十条 有下列情形之一的，法定代理或者指定代理终止：

（一）被代理人取得或者恢复民事行为能力；

（二）被代理人或者代理人死亡；

（三）代理人丧失民事行为能力；

（四）指定代理的人民法院或者指定单位取消指定；

（五）由其他原因引起的被代理人和代理人之间的监护关系消灭。

第五章 民事权利

第一节 财产所有权和与财产所有权有关的财产权

第七十一条 财产所有权是指所有人依法对自己的财产享有占有、使用、收益和处分的权利。

第七十二条 财产所有权的取得，不得违反法律规定。按照合同或者其他合法方式取得财产的，财产所有权从财产交付时起转移，法律另有规定或者当事人另有约定的除外。

第七十三条 国家财产属于全民所有。国家财产神圣不可侵犯，禁止任何组织或者个人侵占、哄抢、私分、截留、破坏。

第七十四条 劳动群众集体组织的财产属于劳动群众集体所有，包括：

（一）法律规定为集体所有的土地和森林、山岭、草原、荒地、滩涂等；

（二）集体经济组织的财产；

（三）集体所有的建筑物、水库、农田水利设施和教育、科学、文化、卫生、体育等设施；

（四）集体所有的其他财产。集体所有的土地依照法律属于村农民集体所有，由村农业生产合作社等农业集体经济组织或者村民委员会经营、管理。已经属于乡

（镇）农民集体经济组织所有的，可以属于乡

（镇）农民集体所有。集体所有的财产受法律保护，禁止任何组织或者个人侵占、哄抢、私分、破坏或者非法查封、扣押、冻结、没收。

第七十五条 公民的个人财产，包括公民的合法收入、房屋、储蓄、生活用品、文物、图书资料、林木、牲畜和法律允许公民所有的生产资料以及其他合法财产。公民的合法财产受法律保护，禁止任何组织或者个人侵占、哄抢、破坏或者非法查封、扣押、冻结、没收。

第七十六条公民依法享有财产继承权。

第七十七条 社会团体包括宗教团体的合法财产受法律保护。

第七十八条 财产可以由两个以上的公民、法人共有。共有分为按份共有和共同共有。按份共有人按照各自的份额，对共有财产分享权利，分担义务。共同共有人对共有财产享有权利，承担义务。按份共有财产的每个共有人有权要求将自己的份额分出或者转让。但在出售时，其他共有人在同等条件下，有优先购买的权利。

第七十九条 所有人不明的埋藏物、隐藏物，归国家所有。接收单位应当对上缴的单位或者个人，给予表扬或者物质奖励。拾得遗失物、漂流物或者失散的饲养动物，应当归还失主，因此而支出的费用由失主偿还。

第八十条 国家所有的土地，可以依法由全民所有制单位使用，也可以依法确定由集体所有制单位使用，国家保护它的使用、收益的权利；使用单位有管理、保护、合理利用的义务。公民、集体依法对集体所有的或者国家所有由集体使用的土地的承包经营权，受法律保护。承包双方的权利和义务，依照法律由承包合同规定。土地不得买卖、出租、抵押或者以其他形式非法转让。

第八十一条 国家所有的森林、山岭、草原、荒地、滩涂、水面等自然资源，可以依法由全民所有制单位使用，也可以依法确定由集体所有制单位使用，国家保护它的使用、收益的权利；使用单位有管理、保护、合理利用的义务。国家所有的矿藏，可以依法由全民所有制单位和集体所有制单位开采，也可以依法由公民采挖。国家保护合法的采矿权。公民、集体依法对集体所有的或者国家所有由集体使用的森林、山岭、草原、荒地、滩涂、水面的承包经营权，受法律保护。承包双方的权利和义务，依照法律由承包合同规定。国家所有的矿藏、水流，国家所有的和法律规定属于集体所有的林地、山岭、草原、荒地、滩涂不得买卖、出租、抵押或者以其他形式非法转让。

第八十二条 全民所有制企业对国家授予它经营管理的财产依法享有经营权，受法律保护。

第八十三条 不动产的相邻各方，应当按照有利生产、方便生活、团结互助、公平合理的精神，正确处理截水、排水、通行、通风、采光等方面的相邻关系。给相邻方造成妨碍或者损失的，应当停止侵害，排除妨碍，赔偿损失。

第二节 债 权

第八十四条 债是按照合同的约定或者依照法律的规定，在当事人之间产生的特定的权利和义务关系，享有权利的人是债权人，负有义务的人是债务人。债权人有权要求债务人按照合同的约定或者依照法律的规定履行义务。

第八十五条 合同是当事人之间设立、变更、终止民事关系的协议。依法成立的合同，受法律保护。

第八十六条 债权人为二人以上的，按照确定的份额分享权利。债务人为二人以上的，按照确定的份额分担义务。

第八十七条 债权人或者债务人一方人数为二人以上的，依照法律的规定或者当事人的约定，享有连带权利的每个债权人，都有权要求债务人履行义务；负有连带义务的每个债务人，都负有清偿全部债务的义务，履行了义务的人，有权要求其他负有连带义务的人偿付他应当承担的份额。

第八十八条 合同的当事人应当按照合同的约定，全部履行自己的义务。合同中有关质量、期限、地点或者价款约定不明确，按照合同有关条款内容不能确定，当事人又不能通过协商达成协议的，适用下列规定：

（一）质量要求不明确的，按照国家质量标准履行，没有国家质量标准的，按照通常标准履行。

（二）履行期限不明确的，债务人可以随时向债权人履行义务，债权人也可以随时要求债务人履行义务，但应当给对方必要的准备时间。

（三）履行地点不明确，给付货币的，在接受给付一方的所在地履行，其他标的在履行义务一方的所在地履行。

（四）价款约定不明确的，按照国家规定的价格履行；没有国家规定价格的，参照市场价格或者同类物品的价格或者同类劳务的报酬标准履行。合同对专利申请权没有约定的，完成发明创造的当事人享有申请权。合同对科技成果的使用权没有约定的，当事人都有使用的权利。

第八十九条 依照法律的规定或者按照当事人的约定，可以采用下列方式担保债务的履行：

（一）保证人向债权人保证债务人履行债务，债务人不履行债务的，按照约定由保证人履行或者承担连带责任；保证人履行债务后，有权向债务人追偿。

（二）债务人或者第三人可以提供一定的财产作为抵押物。债务人不履行债务的，债权人有权依照法律的规定以抵押物折价或者以变卖抵押物的价款优先得到偿还。

（三）当事人一方在法律规定的范围内可以向对方给付定金。债务人履行债务后，定金应当抵作价款或者收回。给付定金的一方不履行债务的，无权要求返还定金；接受定金的一方不履行债务的，应当双倍返还定金。

（四）按照合同约定一方占有对方的财产，对方不按照合同给付应付款项超过约定期限的，占有人有权留置该财产，依照法律的规定以留置财产折价或者以变卖该财产的价款优先得到偿还。

第九十条 合法的借贷关系受法律保护。

第九十一条 合同一方将合同的权利、义务全部或者部分转让给第三人的，应当取得合同另一方的同意，并不得牟利。依照法律规定应当由国家批准的合同，需经原批准机关批准。但是，法律另有规定或者原合同另有约定的除外。

第九十二条 没有合法根据，取得不当利益，造成他人损失的，应当将取得的不当利益返还受损失的人。

第九十三条 没有法定的或者约定的义务，为避免他人利益受损失进行管理或者服务的，有权要求受益人偿付由此而支付的必要费用。

第三节 知识产权

第九十四条 公民、法人享有著作权

（版权），依法有署名、发表、出版、获得报酬等权利。

第九十五条 公民、法人依法取得的专利权受法律保护。

第九十六条 法人、个体工商户、个人合伙依法取得的商标专用权受法律保护。

第九十七条 公民对自己的发现享有发现权。发现人有权申请领取发现证书、奖金或者其他奖励。公民对自己的发明或者其他科技成果，有权申请领取荣誉证书、奖金或者其他奖励。

第四节 人 身 权

第九十八条 公民享有生命健康权。

第九十九条 公民享有姓名权，有权决定、使用和依照规定改变自己的姓名，禁止他人干涉、盗用、假冒。法人、个体工商户、个人合伙享有名称权。企业法人、个体工商户、个人合伙有权使用、依法转让自己的名称。

第一百条 公民享有肖像权，未经本人同意，不得以营利为目的使用公民的肖像。

第一百零一条 公民、法人享有名誉权，公民的人格尊严受法律保护，禁止用侮辱、诽谤等方式损害公民、法人的名誉。

第一百零二条 公民、法人享有荣誉权，禁止非法剥夺公民、法人的荣誉称号。

第一百零三条 公民享有婚姻自主权，禁止买卖、包办婚姻和其他干涉婚姻自由的行为。

第一百零四条 婚姻、家庭、老人、母亲和儿童受法律保护。残疾人的合法权益受法律保护。

第一百零五条 妇女享有同男子平等的民事权利。

第六章民事责任

第一节 一般规定

第一百零六条 公民、法人违反合同或者不履行其他义务的，应当承担民事责任。公民、法人由于过错侵害国家的、集体的财产，侵害他人财产、人身的，应当承担民事责任。没有过错，但法律规定应当承担民事责任的，应当承担民事责任。

第一百零七条 因不可抗力不能履行合同或者造成他人损害的，不承担民事责任，法律另有规定的除外。

第一百零八条 债务应当清偿。暂时无力偿还的，经债权人同意或者人民法院裁决，可以由债务人分期偿还。有能力偿还拒不偿还的，由人民法院判决强制偿还。

第一百零九条 因防止、制止国家的、集体的财产或者他人的财产、人身遭受侵害而使自己受到损害的，由侵害人承担赔偿责任，受益人也可以给予适当的补偿。

第一百一十条 对承担民事责任的公民、法人需要追究行政责任的，应当追究行政责任；构成犯罪的，对公民、法人的法定代表人应当依法追究刑事责任。

第二节违反合同的民事责任

第一百一十一条 当事人一方不履行合同义务或者履行合同义务不符合约定条件的，另一方有权要求履行或者采取补救措施，并有权要求赔偿损失。

第一百一十二条 当事人一方违反合同的赔偿责任，应当相当于另一方因此所受到的损失。当事人可以在合同中约定，一方违反合同时，向另一方支付一定数额的违约金；也可以在合同中约定对于违反合同而产生的损失赔偿额的计算方法。

第一百一十三条 当事人双方都违反合同的，应当分别承担各自应负的民事责任。

第一百一十四条 当事人一方因另一方违反合同受到损失的，应当及时采取措施防止损失的扩大；没有及时采取措施致使损失扩大的，无权就扩大的损失要求赔偿。

第一百一十五条 合同的变更或者解除，不影响当事人要求赔偿损失的权利。

第一百一十六条 当事人一方由于上级机关的原因，不能履行合同义务的，应当按照合同约定向另一方赔偿损失或者采取其他补救措施，再由上级机关对它因此受到的损失负责处理。

第三节 侵权的民事责任

第一百一十七条 侵占国家的、集体的财产或者他人财产的，应当返还财产，不能返还财产的，应当折价赔偿。损坏国家的、集体的财产或者他人财产的，应当恢复原状或者折价赔偿。受害人因此遭受其他重大损失的，侵害人并应当赔偿损失。

第一百一十八条 公民、法人的著作权

（版权）、专利权、商标专用权、发现权、发明权和其他科技成果权受到剽窃、篡改、假冒等侵害的，有权要求停止侵害，消除影响，赔偿损失。

第一百一十九条 侵害公民身体造成伤害的，应当赔偿医疗费、因误工减少的收入、残废者生活补助费等费用；造成死亡的，并应当支付丧葬费、死者生前扶养的人必要的生活费等费用。

第一百二十条 公民的姓名权、肖像权、名誉权、荣誉权受到侵害的，有权要求停止侵害，恢复名誉，消除影响，赔礼道歉，并可以要求赔偿损失。法人的名称权、名誉权、荣誉权受到侵害的，适用前款规定。

第一百二十一条 国家机关或者国家机关工作人员在执行职务中，侵犯公民、法人的合法权益造成损害的，应当承担民事责任。

第一百二十二条 因产品质量不合格造成他人财产、人身损害的，产品制造者、销售者应当依法承担民事责任。运输者、仓储者对此负有责任的，产品制造者、销售者有权要求赔偿损失。

第一百二十三条 从事高空、高压、易燃、易爆、剧毒、放射性、高速运输工具等对周围环境有高度危险的作业造成他人损害的，应当承担民事责任；如果能够证明损害是由受害人故意造成的，不承担民事责任。

第一百二十四条 违反国家保护环境防止污染的规定，污染环境造成他人损害的，应当依法承担民事责任。

第一百二十五条 在公共场所、道旁或者通道上挖坑、修缮安装地下设施等，没有设置明显标志和采取安全措施造成他人损害的，施工人应当承担民事责任。

第一百二十六条建筑物或者其他设施以及建筑物上的搁置物、悬挂物发生倒塌、脱落、坠落造成他人损害的，它的所有人或者管理人应当承担民事责任，但能够证明自己没有过错的除外。

第一百二十七条 饲养的动物造成他人损害的，动物饲养人或者管理人应当承担民事责任；由于受害人的过错造成损害的，动物饲养人或者管理人不承担民事责任；由于第三人的过错造成损害的，第三人应当承担民事责任。

第一百二十八条因正当防卫造成损害的，不承担民事责任。正当防卫超过必要的限度，造成不应有的损害的，应当承担适当的民事责任。

第一百二十九条因紧急避险造成损害的，由引起险情发生的人承担民事责任。如果危险是由自然原因引起的，紧急避险人不承担民事责任或者承担适当的民事责任。因紧急避险采取措施不当或者超过必要的限度，造成不应有的损害的，紧急避险人应当承担适当的民事责任。

第一百三十条二人以上共同侵权造成他人损害的，应当承担连带责任。

第一百三十一条 受害人对于损害的发生也有过错的，可以减轻侵害人的民事责任。

第一百三十二条 当事人对造成损害都没有过错的，可以根据实际情况，由当事人分担民事责任。

第一百三十三条 无民事行为能力人、限制民事行为能力人造成他人损害的，由监护人承担民事责任。监护人尽了监护责任的，可以适当减轻他的民事责任。有财产的无民事行为能力人、限制民事行为能力人造成他人损害的，从本人财产中支付赔偿费用。不足部分，由监护人适当赔偿，但单位担任监护人的除外。

第四节承担民事责任的方式

第一百三十四条 承担民事责任的方式主要有：

（一）停止侵害；

（二）排除妨碍；

（三）消除危险；

（四）返还财产；

（五）恢复原状；

（六）修理、重作、更换；

（七）赔偿损失；

（八）支付违约金；

（九）消除影响、恢复名誉；

（十）赔礼道歉。以上承担民事责任的方式，可以单独适用，也可以合并适用。人民法院审理民事案件，除适用上述规定外，还可以予以训诫、责令具结悔过、收缴进行非法活动的财物和非法所得，并可以依照法律规定处以罚款、拘留。

第七章 诉讼时效

第一百三十五条 向人民法院请求保护民事权利的诉讼时效期间为二年，法律另有规定的除外。

第一百三十六条 下列的诉讼时效期间为一年：

（一）身体受到伤害要求赔偿的；

（二）出售质量不合格的商品未声明的；

（三）延付或者拒付租金的；

（四）寄存财物被丢失或者损毁的。

第一百三十七条 诉讼时效期间从知道或者应当知道权利被侵害时起计算。但是，从权利被侵害之日起超过二十年的，人民法院不予保护。有特殊情况的，人民法院可以延长诉讼时效期间。

第一百三十八条 超过诉讼时效期间，当事人自愿履行的，不受诉讼时效限制。

第一百三十九条 在诉讼时效期间的最后六个月内，因不可抗力或者其他障碍不能行使请求权的，诉讼时效中止。从中止时效的原因消除之日起，诉讼时效期间继续计算。

第一百四十条 诉讼时效因提起诉讼、当事人一方提出要求或者同意履行义务而中断。从中断时起，诉讼时效期间重新计算。

第一百四十一条 法律对诉讼时效另有规定的，依照法律规定。

第八章涉外民事关系的法律适用

第一百四十二条 涉外民事关系的法律适用，依照本章的规定确定。中华人民共和国缔结或者参加的国际条约同中华人民共和国的民事法律有不同规定的，适用国际条约的规定，但中华人民共和国声明保留的条款除外。中华人民共和国法律和中华人民共和国缔结或者参加的国际条约没有规定的，可以适用国际惯例。

第一百四十三条 中华人民共和国公民定居国外的，他的民事行为能力可以适用定居国法律。

第一百四十四条 不动产的所有权，适用不动产所在地法律。

第一百四十五条 涉外合同的当事人可以选择处理合同争议所适用的法律，法律另有规定的除外。涉外合同的当事人没有选择的，适用与合同有最密切联系的国家的法律。

第一百四十六条侵权行为的损害赔偿，适用侵权行为地法律。当事人双方国籍相同或者在同一国家有住所的，也可以适用当事人本国法律或者住所地法律。中华人民共和国法律不认为在中华人民共和国领域外发生的行为是侵权行为的，不作为侵权行为处理。

第一百四十七条 中华人民共和国公民和外国人结婚适用婚姻缔结地法律，离婚适用受理案件的法院所在地法律。

第一百四十八条 扶养适用与被扶养人有最密切联系的国家的法律。

第一百四十九条 遗产的法定继承，动产适用被继承人死亡时住所地法律，不动产适用不动产所在地法律。

第一百五十条依照本章规定适用外国法律或者国际惯例的，不得违背中华人民共和国的社会公共利益。

第九章 附 则

第一百五十一条 民族自治地方的人民代表大会可以根据本法规定的原则，结合当地民族的特点，制定变通的或者补充的单行条例或者规定。自治区人民代表大会制定的，依照法律规定报全国人民代表大会常务委员会批准或者备案；自治州、自治县人民代表大会制定的，报省、自治区人民代表大会常务委员会批准。

第一百五十二条 本法生效以前，经省、自治区、直辖市以上主管机关批准开办的全民所有制企业，已经向工商行政管理机关登记的，可以不再办理法人登记，即具有法人资格。

第一百五十三条 本法所称的“不可抗力”，是指不能预见、不能避免并不能克服的客观情况。

第一百五十四条 民法所称的期间按照公历年、月、日、小时计算。规定按照小时计算期间的，从规定时开始计算。规定按照日、月、年计算期间的，开始的当天不算入，从下一天开始计算。期间的最后一天是星期日或者其他法定休假日的，以休假日的次日为期间的最后一天。期间的最后一天的截止时间为二十四点。有业务时间的，到停止业务活动的时间截止。

第一百五十五条 民法所称的“以上”、“以下”、“以内”、“届满”，包括本数；所称的“不满”、“以外”，不包括本数。

第一百五十六条 本法自一九八七年一月一日起施行。

【题注】 Important Notice: (注意事项)

英文本源自中华人民共和国务院法制局编译, 中国法制出版社出版的《中华人民 共和国涉外法规汇编》(1991年7月版). 当发生歧意时, 应以法律法规颁布单位发布的中文原文为准.

This Englishdocument is coming from "LAWS AND REGULATIONS OF THEPEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA GOVERNING FOREIGN-RELATEDMATTERS" (1991.7) which is compiled by the Brueau ofLegislative Affairs of the State Council of the People'sRepublic of China, and is published by the China LegalSystem Publishing House. In case of discrepancy, theoriginal version in Chinese shall prevail. WholeDocument (法规全文) GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF THE CIVIL LAW OFTHE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA (Adopted at the FourthSession of the Sixth National People's Congress, promulgatedby Order No. 37 of the President of the People's Republic ofChina on April 12, 1986, and effective as of January 1,1987) Contents

Chapter I Basic Principles

ChapterII Citizen (Natural Person)

Section 1 Capacity for CivilRights and Capacity for Civil Conduct

Section 2 Guardianship

Section 3 Declarations of Missing Persons and Death

Section4 Individual Businesses and Leaseholding Farm Households

Section 5 Individual Partnership

Chapter III Legal Persons

Section 1 General Stipulations

Section 2 Enterprise as LegalPerson

Section 3 Official Organ, Institution and SocialOrganization as Legal Persons

Section 4 Economic Association

Chapter IV Civil Juristic Acts and Agency

Section 1 CivilJuristic Acts

Section 2 Agency

Chapter V Civil Rights

Section 1 Property Ownership and Related Property Rights

Section 2 Creditors' Rights

Section 3 Intellectual PropertyRights

Section 4 Personal Rights

Chapter VI Civil Liability

Section 1 General Stipulations

Section 2 Civil Liability forBreach of Contract

Section 3 Civil Liability forInfringement of Rights

Section 4 Methods of Bearing CivilLiability

Chapter VII Limitation of Action

Chapter VIIIApplication of Law in Civil Relations with Foreigners

Chapter IX Supplementary Provisions

Chapter I BasicPrinciples

Article 1 This Law is formulated in accordancewith the Constitution and the actual situation in ourcountry, drawing upon our practical experience in civilactivities, for the purpose of protecting the lawful civilrights and interests of citizens and legal persons andcorrectly adjusting civil relations, so as to meet the needsof the developing socialist modernization.

Article 2 TheCivil Law of the People's Republic of China shall adjustproperty relationships and personal relationships betweencivil subjects with equal status, that is, between citizens,between legal persons and between citizens and legalpersons.

Article 3 Parties to a civil activity shall haveequal status.

Article 4 In civil activities, the principlesof voluntariness, fairness, making compensation for equalvalue, honesty and credibility shall be observed.

Article 5The lawful civil rights and interests of citizens and legalpersons shall be protected by law; no organization orindividual may infringe upon them.

Article 6 Civilactivities must be in compliance with the law; where thereare no relevant provisions in the law, they shall be incompliance with state policies.

Article 7 Civil activitiesshall have respect for social ethics and shall not harm thepublic interest, undermine state economic plans or disruptsocial economic order.

Article 8 The law of the People'sRepublic of China shall apply to civil activities within thePeople's Republic of China, except as otherwise stipulatedby law. The stipulations of this Law as regards citizensshall apply to foreigners and stateless persons within thePeople's Republic of China, except as otherwise stipulatedby law.

Chapter II Citizen (Natural Person)

Section1 Capacity for Civil Rights and Capacity for Civil Conduct.

Article 9 A citizen shall have the capacity for civil rightsfrom birth to death and shall enjoy civil rights and assumecivil obligations in accordance with the law.

Article 10 Allcitizens are equal as regards their capacity for civilrights.

Article 11 A citizen aged 18 or over shall be anadult. He shall have full capacity for civil conduct, mayindependently engage in civil activities and shall be calleda person with full capacity for civil conduct. A citizen whohas reached the age of 16 but not the age of 18 and whosemain source of income is his own labour shall be regarded asa person with full capacity for civil conduct.

Article 12 Aminor aged 10 or over shall be a person with limitedcapacity for civil conduct and may engage in civilactivities appropriate to his age and intellect; in othercivil activities, he shall be represented by his agent adlitem or participate with the consent of his agent ad litem.A minor under the age of 10 shall be a person having nocapacity for civil conduct and shall be represented in civilactivities by his agent ad litem.

Article 13 A mentally illperson who is unable to account for his own conduct shall bea person having no capacity for civil conduct and shall berepresented in civil activities by his agent ad litem. Amentally ill person who is unable to fully account for hisown conduct shall be a person with limited capacity forcivil conduct and may engage in civil activities appropriateto his mental health; in other civil activities, he shall berepresented by his agent ad litem or participate with theconsent of his agent ad litem.

Article 14 The guardian of aperson without or with limited capacity for civil conductshall be his agent ad litem.

Article 15 The domicile of acitizen shall be the place where his residence isregistered; if his habitual residence is not the same as hisdomicile, his habitual residence shall be regarded as hisdomicile.

Section 2 Guardianship

Article 16 The parents of aminor shall be his guardians. If the parents of a minor aredead or lack the competence to be his guardian, a personfrom the following categories who has the competence to be aguardian shall act as his guardian: (1) paternal or maternalgrandparent; (2) elder brother or sister; or (3) any otherclosely connected relative or friend willing to bear theresponsibility of guardianship and having approval from theunits of the minor's parents or from the neighbourhood orvillage committee in the place of the minor's residence. Incase of a dispute over guardianship, the units of theminor's parents or the neighbourhood or village committee inthe place of his residence shall appoint a guardian fromamong the minor's near relatives. If disagreement over theappointment leads to a lawsuit, the people's court shallmake a ruling. If none of the persons listed in the firsttwo paragraphs of this

Article is available to be theguardian, the units of the minor's parents, theneighbourhood or village committee in the place of theminor's residence or the civil affairs department shall actas his guardian.

Article 17 A person from the followingcategories shall act as guardian for a mentally ill personwithout or with limited capacity for civil conduct: (1)spouse; (2) parent; (3) adult child; (4) any other nearrelative; (5) any other closely connected relative or friendwilling to bear the responsibility of guardianship andhaving approval from the unit to which the mentally illperson belongs or from the neighbourhood or villagecommittee in the place of his residence. In case of adispute over guardianship, the unit to which the mentallyill person belongs or the neighbourhood or village committeein the place of his residence shall appoint a guardian fromamong his near relatives. If disagreement over theappointment leads to a lawsuit, the people's court shallmake a ruling. If none of the persons listed in the firstparagraph of this

Article is available to be the guardian,the unit to which the mentally ill person belongs, theneighbourhood or village committee in the place of hisresidence or the civil affairs department shall act as hisguardian.

Article 18 A guardian shall fulfil his duty ofguardianship and protect the person, property and otherlawful rights and interests of his ward. A guardian shallnot handle the property of his ward unless it is in theward's interests. A guardian's rights to fulfil hisguardianship in accordance with the law shall be protectedby law. If a guardian does not fulfil his duties as guardianor infringes upon the lawful rights and interests of hisward, he shall be held responsible; if a guardian causes anyproperty loss for his ward, he shall compensate for suchloss. The people's court may disqualify a guardian based onthe application of a concerned party or unit.

Article 19 Aperson who shares interests with a mental patient may applyto a people's court for a declaration that the mentalpatient is a person without or with limited capacity forcivil conduct. With the recovery of the health of a personwho has been declared by a people's court to be without orwith limited capacity for civil conduct, and upon his ownapplication or that of an interested person, the people'scourt may declare him to be a person with limited or fullcapacity for civil conduct.

Section 3 Declarations ofMissing Persons and Death

Article 20 If a citizen'swhereabouts have been unknown for two years, an interestedperson may apply to a people's court for a declaration ofthe citizen as missing. If a person's whereabouts becomeunknown during a war, the calculation of the time period inwhich his whereabouts are unknown shall begin on the finalday of the war.

Article 21 A missing person's property shallbe placed in the custody of his spouse, parents, adultchildren or other closely connected relatives or friends. Incase of a dispute over custody, if the persons stipulatedabove are unavailable or are incapable of taking suchcustody, the property shall be placed in the custody of aperson appointed by the people's court. Any taxes, debts andother unpaid expenses owed by a missing person shalldefrayed by the custodian out of the missing person'sproperty.

Article 22 In the event that a person who has beendeclared missing reappears or his whereabouts areascertained, the people's court shall, upon his ownapplication or that of an interested person, revoke thedeclaration of his missing-person status.

Article 23 Undereither of the following circumstances, an interested personmay apply to the people's court for a declaration of acitizen's death: (1) if the citizen's whereabouts have beenunknown for four years or (2) if the citizen's whereaboutshave been unknown for two years after the date of anaccident in which he was involved. If a person's whereaboutsbecome unknown during a war, the calculation of the timeperiod in which his whereabouts are unknown shall begin onthe final day of the war.

Article 24 In the event that aperson who has been declared dead reappears or it isascertained that he is alive, the people's court shall, uponhis own application or that of an interested person, revokethe declaration of his death. Any civil juristic actsperformed by a person with capacity for civil conduct duringthe period in which he has been declared dead shall bevalid.

Article 25 A person shall have the right to requestthe return of his property, if the declaration of his deathhas been revoked. Any citizen or organization that hasobtained such property in accordance with the Law ofSuccession shall return the original items or makeappropriate compensation if the original items no longerexist.

Section 4 Individual Businesses and Leaseholding FarmHouseholds

Article 26 "Individual businesses" refers tobusiness run by individual citizens who have been lawfullyregistered and approved to engage in industrial orcommercial operation within the sphere permitted by law. Anindividual business may adopt a shop name.

Article 27"Leaseholding farm households" refers to members of a ruralcollective economic organization who engage in commodityproduction under a contract and within the spheres permittedby law.

Article 28 The legitimate rights and interests ofindividual businesses and leaseholding farm households shallbe protected by law.

Article 29 The debts of an individualbusiness or a leaseholding farm household shall be securedwith the individual's property if the business is operatedby an individual and with the family's property if thebusiness is operated by a family.

Section 5 IndividualPartnership

Article 30 "Individual partnership" refers totwo or more citizens associated in a business and workingtogether, with each providing funds, material objects,techniques and so on according to an agreement.

Article 31Partners shall make a written agreement covering the fundseach is to provide, the distribution of profits, theresponsibility for debts, the entering into and withdrawalfrom partnership, the ending of partnership and other suchmatters.

Article 32 The property provided by the partnersshall be under their unified management and use. Theproperty accumulated in a partnership operation shall belongto all the partners.

Article 33 An individual partnershipmay adopt a shop name; it shall be approved and registeredin accordance with the law and conduct business operationswithin the range as approved and registered.

Article 34 Theoperational activities of an individual partnership shall bedecided jointly by the partners, who each shall have theright to carry out and supervise those activities. Thepartners may elect a responsible person. All partners shallbear civil liability for the operational activities of theresponsible person and other personnel.

Article 35 Apartnership's debts shall be secured with the partners'property in proportion to their respective contributions tothe investment or according to the agreement made. Partnersshall undertake joint liability for their partnership'sdebts, except as otherwise stipulated by law. Any partnerwho overpays his share of the partnership's debts shall havethe right to claim compensation from the other partners.

【章名】

Chapter III Legal Persons

Section 1 GeneralStipulations

Article 36 A legal person shall be anorganization that has capacity for civil rights and capacityfor civil conduct and independently enjoys civil rights andassumes civil obligations in accordance with the law. Alegal person's capacity for civil rights and capacity forcivil conduct shall begin when the legal person isestablished and shall end when the legal person terminates.

Article 37 A legal person shall have the followingqualifications: (1) establishment in accordance with thelaw; (2) possession of the necessary property or funds; (3)possession of its own name, organization and premises; and(4) ability to independently bear civil liability.

Article38 In accordance with the law or the

Articles of associationof the legal person, the responsible person who acts onbehalf of the legal person in exercising its functions andpowers shall be its legal representative.

Article 39 A legalperson's domicile shall be the place where its mainadministrative office is located.

Article 40 When a legalperson terminates, it shall go into liquidation inaccordance with the law and discontinue all otheractivities.

Section 2 Enterprise as Legal Person

Article 41An enterprise owned by the whole people or under collectiveownership shall be qualified as a legal person when it hassufficient funds as stipulated by the state; has

Articles ofassociation, an organization and premises; has the abilityto independently bear civil liability; and has been approvedand registered by the competent authority. A Chineseforeignequity joint venture, Chinese-foreign contractual jointventure or foreign-capital enterprise established within thePeople's Republic of China shall be qualified as a legalperson in China if it has the qualifications of a legalperson and has been approved and registered by theadministrative agency for industry and commerce in accordingwith the law.

Article 42 An enterprise as legal person shallconduct operations within the range approved and registered.

Article 43 An enterprise as legal person shall bear civilliability for the operational activities of its legalrepresentatives and other personnel.

Article 44 If anenterprise as legal person is divided or merged or undergoesany other important change, it shall register the changewith the registration authority and publicly announce it.When an enterprise as legal person is divided or merged, itsrights and obligations shall be enjoyed and assumed by thenew legal person that results from the change.

Article 45 Anenterprise as legal person shall terminate for any of thefollowing reasons: (1) if it is dissolved by law; (2) if itis disbanded; (3) if it is declared bankrupt in accordancewith the law; or (4) for other reasons.

Article 46 When anenterprise as legal person terminates, it shall cancel itsregistration with the registration authority and publiclyannounce the termination.

Article 47 When an enterprise aslegal person is disbanded, it shall establish a liquidationorganization and go into liquidation. When an enterprise aslegal person is dissolved or is declared bankrupt, thecompetent authority or a people's court shall organize theorgans and personnel concerned to establish a liquidationorganization to liquidate the enterprise.

Article 48 Anenterprise owned by the whole people, as legal person, shallbear civil liability with the property that the stateauthorizes it to manage. An enterprise under collectiveownership, as legal person, shall bear civil liability withthe property it owns. A Chinese-foreign equity jointventure, Chinese-foreign contractual joint venture orforeign-capital enterprise as legal person shall bear civilliability with the property it owns, except as stipulatedotherwise by law.

Article 49 Under any of the followingcircumstances, an enterprise as legal person shall bearliability, its legal representative may additionally begiven administrative sanctions and fined and, if the offenceconstitutes a crime, criminal responsibility shall beinvestigated in accordance with the law: (1) conductingillegal operations beyond the range approved and registeredby the registration authority; (2) concealing facts from theregistration and tax authorities and practising fraud; (3)secretly withdrawing funds or hiding property to evaderepayment of debts; (4) disposing of property withoutauthorization after the enterprise is dissolved, disbandedor declared bankrupt; (5) failing to apply for registrationand make a public announcement promptly when the enterpriseundergoes a change or terminates, thus causing interestedpersons to suffer heavy losses; (6) engaging in otheractivities prohibited by law, damaging the interests of thestate or the public interest.

Section 3 Official Organ,Institution and Social Organization as Legal Person

Article50 An independently funded official organ shall be qualifiedas a legal person on the day it is established. If accordingto law an institution or social organization having thequalifications of a legal person needs not go through theprocedures for registering as a legal person, it shall bequalified as a legal person on the day it is established; ifaccording to law it does need to go through the registrationprocedures, it shall be qualified as a legal person afterbeing approved and registered.

Section 4 EconomicAssociation

Article 51 If a new economic entity is formed byenterprises or an enterprise and an institution that engagein economic association and it independently bears civilliability and has the qualifications of a legal person, thenew entity shall be qualified as a legal person after beingapproved and registered by the competent authority.

Article52 If the enterprises or an enterprise and an institutionthat engage in economic association conduct joint operationbut do not have the qualifications of a legal person, eachparty to the association shall, in proportion to itsrespective contribution to the investment or according tothe agreement made, bear civil liability with the propertyeach party owns or manages. If joint liability is specifiedby law or by agreement, the parties shall assume jointliability.

Article 53 If the contract for economicassociation of enterprises or of an enterprise and aninstitution specifies that each party shall conductoperations independently, it shall stipulate the rights andobligations of each party, and each party shall bear civilliability separately.

Chapter IV Civil JuristicActs and Agency

Section 1 Civil Juristic Acts

Article 54 Acivil juristic act shall be the lawful act of a citizen orlegal person to establish, change or terminate civil rightsand obligations.

Article 55 A civil juristic act shall meetthe following requirements: (1) the actor has relevantcapacity for civil conduct; (2) the intention expressed isgenuine; and (3) the act does not violate the law or thepublic interest.

Article 56 A civil juristic act may be inwritten, oral or other form. If the law stipulates that aparticular form be adopted, such stipulation shall beobserved.

Article 57 A civil juristic act shall be legallybinding once it is instituted. The actor shall not alter orrescind his act except in accordance with the law or withthe other party's consent.

Article 58 Civil acts in thefollowing categories shall be null and void: (1) thoseperformed by a person without capacity for civil conduct;(2) those that according to law may not be independentlyperformed by a person with limited capacity for civilconduct; (3) those performed by a person against his trueintentions as a result of cheating, coercion or exploitationof his unfavourable position by the other party; (4) thosethat performed through malicious collusion are detrimentalto the interest of the state, a collective or a third party;(5) those that violate the law or the public interest; (6)economic contracts that violate the state's mandatory plans;and (7) those that performed under the guise of legitimateacts conceal illegitimate purposes. Civil acts that are nulland void shall not be legally binding from the verybeginning.

Article 59 A party shall have the right torequest a people's court or an arbitration agency to alteror rescind the following civil acts: (1) those performed byan actor who seriously misunderstood the contents of theacts; (2) those that are obviously unfair. Rescinded civilacts shall be null and void from the very beginning.

Article60 If part of a civil act is null and void, it shall notaffect the validity of other parts.

Article 61 After a civilact has been determined to be null and void or has beenrescinded, the party who acquired property as a result ofthe act shall return it to the party who suffered a loss.The erring party shall compensate the other party for thelosses it suffered as a result of the act; if both sides arein error, they shall each bear their proper share of theresponsibility. If the two sides have conspired maliciouslyand performed a civil act that is detrimental to theinterests of the state, a collective or a third party, theproperty that they thus obtained shall be recovered andturned over to the state or the collective, or returned tothe third party.

Article 62 A civil juristic act may haveconditions attached to it. Conditional civil juristic actsshall take effect when the relevant conditions are met.

Section 2 Agency

Article 63 Citizens and legal persons mayperform civil juristic acts through agents An agent shallperform civil juristic acts in the principal's name withinthe scope of the power of agency. The principal shall bearcivil liability for the agent's acts of agency. Civiljuristic acts that should be performed by the principalhimself, pursuant to legal provisions or the agreementbetween the two parties, shall not be entrusted to an agent.

Article 64 Agency shall include entrusted agency, statutoryagency and appointed agency. An entrusted agent shallexercise the power of agency as entrusted by the principal;a statutory agent shall exercise the power of agency asprescribed by law; and an appointed agent shall exercise thepower of agency as designated by a people's court or theappointing unit.

Article 65 A civil juristic act may beentrusted to an agent in writing or orally. If legalprovisions require the entrustment to be written, it shallbe effected in writing. Where the entrustment of agency isin writing, the power of attorney shall clearly state theagent's name, the entrusted tasks and the scope and durationof the power of agency, and it shall be signed or sealed bythe principal. If the power of attorney is not clear as tothe authority conferred, the principal shall bear civilliability towards the third party, and the agent shall beheld jointly liable.

Article 66 The principal shall bearcivil liability for an act performed by an actor with nopower of agency, beyond the scope of his power of agency orafter his power of agency has expired, only if he recognizesthe act retroactively. If the act is not so recognized, theperformer shall bear civil liability for it. If a principalis aware that a civil act is being executed in his name butfails to repudiate it, his consent shall be deemed to havebeen given. An agent shall bear civil liability if he failsto perform his duties and thus causes damage to theprincipal. If an agent and a third party in collusion harmthe principal's interests, the agent and the third partyshall be held jointly liable. If a third party is aware thatan actor has no power of agency, is overstepping his powerof agency, or his power of agency has expired and yet joinshim in a civil act and thus brings damage to other people,the third party and the actor shall be held jointly liable.

Article 67 If an agent is aware that the matters entrustedare illegal but still carries them out, or if a principal isaware that his agent's acts are illegal but fails to objectto them, the principal and the agent shall be held jointlyliable.

Article 68 If in the principal's interests anentrusted agent needs to transfer the agency to anotherperson, he shall first obtain the principal's consent. Ifthe principal's consent is not obtained in advance, thematter shall be reported to him promptly after the transfer,and if the principal objects, the agent shall bear civilliability for the acts of the transferee; however, anentrusted agency transferred in emergency circumstances inorder to safeguard the principal's interests shall beexcepted.

Article 69 An entrusted agency shall end under anyof the following circumstances: (1) when the period ofagency expires or when the tasks entrusted are completed;(2) when the principal rescinds the entrustment or the agentdeclines the entrustment; (3) when the agent dies; (4) whenthe principal loses his capacity for civil conduct; or (5)when the principal or the agent ceases to be a legal person.

Article 70 A statutory or appointed agency shall end underany of the following circumstances: (1) when the principalgains or recovers capacity for civil conduct; (2) when theprincipal or the agent dies; (3) when the agent losescapacity for civil conduct; (4) when the people's court orthe unit that appointed the agent rescinds the appointment;or (5) when the guardian relationship between the principaland the agent ends for other reasons.

Chapter VCivil Rights

Section 1 Property Ownership and RelatedProperty Rights

Article 71 "Property ownership" means theowner's rights to lawfully possess, utilize, profit from anddispose of his property.

Article 72 Property ownership shallnot be obtained in violation of the law. Unless the lawstipulates otherwise or the parties concerned have agreed onother arrangements, the ownership of property obtained bycontract or by other lawful means shall be transferredsimultaneously with the property itself.

Article 73 Stateproperty shall be owned by the whole people. State propertyis sacred and inviolable, and no organization or individualshall be allowed to seize, encroach upon, privately divide,retain or destroy it.

Article 74 Property of collectiveorganizations of the working masses shall be ownedcollectively by the working masses. This shall include: (1)land, forests, mountains, grasslands, unreclaimed land,beaches and other areas that are stipulated by law to beunder collective ownership; (2) property of collectiveeconomic organizations; (3) collectively owned buildings,reservoirs, farm irrigation facilities and educational,scientific, cultural, health, sports and other facilities;and (4) other property that is collectively owned.Collectively owned land shall be owned collectively by thevillage peasants in accordance with the law and shall beworked and managed by village agricultural productioncooperatives, other collective agricultural economicorganizations or villages' committees. Land already underthe ownership of the township (town) peasants' collectiveeconomic organizations may be collectively owned by thepeasants of the township (town). Collectively owned propertyshall be protected by law, and no organization or individualmay seize, encroach upon, privately divide, destroy orillegally seal up, distrain, freeze or confiscate it.

Article 75 A citizen's personal property shall include hislawfully earned income, housing, savings,

Articles for dailyuse, objects d'art, books, reference materials, trees,livestock, as well as means of production the law permits acitizen to possess and other lawful property. A citizen'slawful property shall be protected by law, and noorganization or individual may appropriate, encroach upon,destroy or illegally seal up, distrain, freeze or confiscateit.

Article 76 Citizens shall have the right of inheritanceunder the law.

Article 77 The lawful property of socialorganizations, including religious organizations, shall beprotected by law.

Article 78 Property may be owned jointlyby two or more citizens or legal persons. There shall be twokinds of joint ownership, namely co-ownership by shares andcommon ownership. Each of the co-owners by shares shallenjoy the rights and assume the obligations respecting thejoint property in proportion to his share. Each of thecommon owners shall enjoy the rights and assume theobligations respecting the joint property. Each co-owner byshares shall have the right to withdraw his own share of thejoint property or transfer its ownership. However, when heoffers to sell his share, the other co-owners shall have aright of pre-emption if all other conditions are equal.

Article 79 If the owner of a buried or concealed object isunknown, the object shall belong to the state. The unit thatreceives the object shall commend or give a material rewardto the unit or individual that turns in the object.Lost-and-found objects, flotsam and stray animals shall bereturned to their rightful owners, and any costs thusincurred shall be reimbursed by the owners.

Article 80State-owned land may be used according to law by units underownership by the whole people; it may also be lawfullyassigned for use by units under collective ownership. Thestate shall protect the usufruct of the land, and theusufructuary shall be obligated to manage, protect andproperly use the land. The right of citizens and collectivesto contract for management of land under collectiveownership or of state-owned land under collective use shallbe protected by law. The rights and obligations of the twocontracting parties shall be stipulated in the contractsigned in accordance with the law. Land may not be sold,leased, mortgaged or illegally transferred by any othermeans.

Article 81 State-owned forests, mountains,grasslands, unreclaimed land, beaches, water surfaces andother natural resources may be used according to law byunits under ownership by the whole people; or they may alsobe lawfully assigned for use by units under collectiveownership. The state shall protect the usufruct of thoseresources, and the usufructuary shall be obliged to manage,protect and properly use them. State-owned mineral resourcesmay be mined according to law by units under ownership bythe whole people and units under collective ownership;citizens may also lawfully mine such resources. The stateshall protect lawful mining rights. The right of citizensand collectives to lawfully contract for the management offorests, mountains, grasslands, unreclaimed land, beachesand water surfaces that are owned by collectives or owned bythe state but used by collectives shall be protected by law.The rights and obligations of the two contracting partiesshall be stipulated in the contract in accordance with thelaw. State-owned mineral resources and waters as well asforest land, mountains, grasslands, unreclaimed land andbeaches owned by the state and those that are lawfully ownedby collectives may not be sold, leased, mortgaged orillegally transferred by any other means.

Article 82Enterprises under ownership by the whole people shalllawfully enjoy the rights of management over property thatthe state has authorized them to manage and operate, and therights shall be protected by law.

Article 83 In the spiritof helping production, making things convenient for people'slives, enhancing unity and mutual assistance, and being fairand reasonable, neighbouring users of real estate shallmaintain proper neighbourly relations over such matters aswater supply, drainage, passageway, ventilation andlighting. Anyone who causes obstruction or damage to hisneighbour, shall stop the infringement, eliminate theobstruction and compensate for the damage.

Section 2Creditors' Rights

Article 84 A debt represents a specialrelationship of rights and obligations established betweenthe parties concerned, either according to the agreed termsof a contract or legal provisions. The party entitled to therights shall be the creditor, and the party assuming theobligations shall be the debtor. The creditor shall have theright to demand that the debtor fulfil his obligations asspecified by the contract or according to legal provisions.

Article 85 A contract shall be an agreement whereby theparties establish, change or terminate their civilrelationship. Lawfully established contracts shall beprotected by law.

Article 86 When there are two or morecreditors to a deal, each creditor shall be entitled torights in proportion to his proper share of the credit. Whenthere are two or more debtors to a deal, each debtor shallassume obligations in proportion to his share of the debt.

Article 87 When there are two or more creditors or debtorsto a deal, each of the joint creditors shall be entitled todemand that the debtor fulfil his obligations, in accordancewith legal provisions or the agreement between the parties;each of the joint debtors shall be obliged to perform theentire debt, and the debtor who performs the entire debtshall be entitled to ask the other joint debtors toreimburse him for their shares of the debt.

Article 88 Theparties to a contract shall fully fulfil their obligationspursuant to the terms of the contract. If a contractcontains ambiguous terms regarding quality, time limit forperformance, place of performance, or price, and theintended meaning cannot be determined from the context ofrelevant terms in the contract, and if the parties cannotreach an agreement through consultation, the provisionsbelow shall apply: (1) If quality requirements are unclear,state quality standards shall apply; if there are no statequality standards, generally held standards shall apply. (2)If the time limit for performance is unclear, the debtor mayat his convenience fulfill his obligations towards thecreditor; the creditor may also demand at any time that thedebtor perform his obligations, but sufficient notice shallbe given to the debtor. (3) If the place of performance isunclear, and the payment is money, the performance shall beeffected at the seat or place of residence of the partyreceiving the payment; if the payment is other than money,the performance shall be effected at the seat or place ofresidence of the party fulfilling the obligations. (4) Ifthe price agreed by the parties is unclear, the state-fixedprice shall apply. If there is no state-fixed price, theprice shall be based on market price or the price of asimilar

Article or remuneration for a similar service. Ifthe contract does not contain an agreed term regardingrights to patent application, any party who has completed aninvention-creation shall have the right to apply for apatent. If the contract does not contain an agreed termregarding rights to patent application, and technologicalresearch achievements, the parties shall all have the rightto use such achievements.

Article 89 In accordance withlegal provisions the agreement between the parties on theperformance of a debt may be guaranteed using the methodsbelow: (1) A guarantor may guarantee to the creditor thatthe debtor shall perform his debt. If the debtor defaults,the guarantor shall perform the debt or bear joint liabilityaccording to agreement. After performing the debt, theguarantor shall have the right to claim repayment from thedebtor. (2) The debtor or a third party may offer a specificproperty as a pledge. If the debtor defaults, the creditorsshall be entitled to keep the pledge to offset the debt orhave priority in satisfying his claim out of the proceedsfrom the sale of the pledge pursuant to relevant legalprovisions. (3) Within the limits of relevant legalprovisions, a party may leave a deposit with the otherparty. After the debtor has discharged his debt, the depositshall either be retained as partial payment of the debt orbe returned. If the party who leaves the deposit defaults,he shall not be entitled to demand the return of thedeposit; if the party who accepts the deposit defaults, heshall repay the deposit in double. (4) If a party haspossession of the other party's property according tocontract and the other party violates the contract byfailing to pay a required sum of money within the specifiedtime limit, the possessor shall have a lien on the propertyand may keep the retained property to offset the debt orhave priority in satisfying his claim out of the proceedsfrom the sale of the property pursuant to relevant legalprovisions.

Article 90 Legitimate loan relationships shallbe protected by law.

Article 91 If a party to a contracttransfers all or part of his contractual rights orobligations to a third party, he shall obtain the otherparty's consent and may not seek profits therefrom.Contracts which according to legal provisions are subject tostate approval, such as transfers, must be approved by theauthority that originally approved the contract, unless thelaw or the original contract stipulates otherwise.

Article92 If profits are acquired improperly and without a lawfulbasis, resulting in another person's loss, the illegalprofits shall be returned to the person who suffered theloss.

Article 93 If a person acts as manager or providesservices in order to protect another person's interests whenhe is not legally or contractually obligated to do so, heshall be entitled to claim from the beneficiary the expensesnecessary for such assistance.

Section 3 IntellectualProperty Rights

Article 94 Citizens and legal persons shallenjoy rights of authorship (copyrights) and shall beentitled to sign their names as authors, issue and publishtheir works and obtain remuneration in accordance with thelaw.

Article 95 The patent rights lawfully obtained bycitizens and legal persons shall be protected by law.

Article 96 The rights to exclusive use of trademarksobtained by legal persons, individual businesses andindividual partnerships shall be protected by law.

Article97 Citizens who make discoveries shall be entitled to therights of discovery. A discoverer shall have the right toapply for and receive certificates of discovery, bonuses orother awards. Citizens who make inventions or otherachievements in scientific and technological research shallhave the right to apply for and receive certificates ofhonour, bonuses or other awards.

Section 4 Personal Rights

Article 98 Citizens shall enjoy the rights of life andhealth.

Article 99 Citizens shall enjoy the right ofpersonal name and shall be entitled to determine, use orchange their personal names in accordance with relevantprovisions. Interference with, usurpation of and falserepresentation of personal names shall be prohibited. Legalpersons, individual businesses and individual partnershipsshall enjoy the right of name. Enterprises as legal persons,individual businesses and individual partnerships shall havethe right to use and lawfully assign their own names.

Article 100 Citizens shall enjoy the right of portrait. Theuse of a citizen's portrait for profit without his consentshall be prohibited.

Article 101 Citizens and legal personsshall enjoy the right of reputation. The personality ofcitizens shall be protected by law, and the use of insults,libel or other means to damage the reputation of citizens orlegal persons shall be prohibited.

Article 102 Citizens andlegal persons shall enjoy the right of honour. It shall beprohibited to unlawfully divest citizens and legal personsof their honorary titles.

Article 103 Citizens shall enjoythe right of marriage by choice. Mercenary marriages,marriages upon arbitrary decision by any third party and anyother acts of interference in the freedom of marriage shallbe prohibited.

Article 104 Marriage, the family, old people,mothers and children shall be protected by law. The lawfulrights and interests of the handicapped shall be protectedby law.

Article 105 Women shall enjoy equal civil rightswith men.

Chapter VI Civil Liability

Section 1General Stipulations

Article 106 Citizens and legal personswho breach a contract or fail to fulfil other obligationsshall bear civil liability. Citizens and legal persons whothrough their fault encroach upon state or collectiveproperty or the property or person of other people shallbear civil liability. Civil liability shall still be borneeven in the absence of fault, if the law so stipulates.

Article 107 Civil liability shall not be borne for failureto perform a contract or damage to a third party if it iscaused by force majeure, except as otherwise provided bylaw.

Article 108 Debts shall be cleared. If a debtor isunable to repay his debt immediately, he may repay byinstalments with the consent of the creditor or a ruling bya people's court. If a debtor is capable of repaying hisdebt but refuses to do so, repayment shall be compelled bythe decision of a people's court.

Article 109 If a personsuffers damages from preventing or stopping encroachment onstate or collective property, or the property or person of athird party, the infringer shall bear responsibility forcompensation, and the beneficiary may also give appropriatecompensation.

Article 110 Citizens or legal persons who bearcivil liability shall also be held for administrativeresponsibility if necessary. If the acts committed bycitizens and legal persons constitute crimes, criminalresponsibility of their legal representatives shall beinvestigated in accordance with the law.

Section 2 CivilLiability for Breach of Contract

Article 111 If a partyfails to fulfil its contractual obligations or violates theterm of a contract while fulfilling the obligations, theother party shall have the right to demand fulfillment orthe taking of remedial measures and claim compensation forits losses.

Article 112 The party that breaches a contractshall be liable for compensation equal to the lossesconsequently suffered by the other party. The parties mayspecify in a contract that if one party breaches thecontract it shall pay the other party a certain amount ofbreach of contract damages; they may also specify in thecontract the method of assessing the compensation for anylosses resulting from a breach of contract.

Article 113 Ifboth parties breach the contract, each party shall bear itsrespective civil liability.

Article 114 If one party issuffering losses owing to the other party's breach ofcontract, it shall take prompt measures to prevent thelosses from increasing; if it does not promptly do so, itshall not have the right to claim compensation for theadditional losses.

Article 115 A party's right to claimcompensation for losses shall not be affected by thealteration or termination of a contract.

Article 116 If aparty fails to fulfil its contractual obligations on accountof a higher authority, it shall first compensate for thelosses of the other party or take other remedial measures ascontractually agreed and then the higher authority shall beresponsible for settling the losses it sustained.

Section 3Civil Liability for Infringement of Rights

Article 117Anyone who encroaches on the property of the state, acollective or another person shall return the property;failing that, he shall reimburse its estimated price. Anyonewho damages the property of the state, a collective oranother person shall restore the property to its originalcondition or reimburse its estimated price. If the victimsuffers other great losses therefrom, the infringer shallcompensate for those losses as well.

Article 118 If therights of authorship (copyrights), patent rights, rights toexclusive use of trademarks, rights of discovery, rights ofinvention or rights for scientific and technologicalresearch achievements of citizens or legal persons areinfringed upon by such means as plagiarism, alteration orimitation, they shall have the right to demand that theinfringement be stopped, its ill effects be eliminated andthe damages be compensated for.

Article 119 Anyone whoinfringes upon a citizen's person and causes him physicalinjury shall pay his medical expenses and his loss in incomedue to missed working time and shall pay him livingsubsidies if he is disabled; if the victim dies, theinfringe shall also pay the funeral expenses, the necessaryliving expenses of the deceased's dependents and other suchexpenses.

Article 120 If a citizen's right of personal name,portrait, reputation or honour is infringed upon, he shallhave the right to demand that the infringement be stopped,his reputation be rehabilitated, the ill effects beeliminated and an apology be made; he may also demandcompensation for losses. The above paragraph shall alsoapply to infringements upon a legal person's right of name,reputation or honour.

Article 121 If a state organ or itspersonnel, while executing its duties, encroaches upon thelawful rights and interests of a citizen or legal person andcauses damage, it shall bear civil liability.

Article 122 Ifa substandard product causes property damage or physicalinjury to others, the manufacturer or seller shall bearcivil liability according to law. If the transporter orstorekeeper is responsible for the matter, the manufactureror seller shall have the right to demand compensation forits losses.

Article 123 If any person causes damage to otherpeople by engaging in operations that are greatly hazardousto the surroundings, such as operations conducted highaboveground, or those involving high pressure, high voltage,combustibles, explosives, highly toxic or radioactivesubstances or highspeed means of transport, he shall bearcivil liability; however, if it can be proven that thedamage was deliberately caused by the victim, he shall notbear civil liability.

Article 124 Any person who pollutesthe environment and causes damage to others in violation ofstate provisions for environmental protection and theprevention of pollution shall bear civil liability inaccordance with the law.

Article 125 Any constructor whoengages in excavation, repairs or installation ofunderground facilities in a public place, on a roadside orin a passageway without setting up clear signs and adoptingsafety measures and thereby causes damage to others shallbear civil liability.

Article 126 If a building or any otherinstallation or an object placed or hung on a structurecollapses, detaches or drops down and causes damage toothers, its owner or manager shall bear civil liability,unless he can prove himself not at fault.

Article 127 If adomesticated animal causes harm to any person, its keeper ormanager shall bear civil liability. If the harm occursthrough the fault of the victim, the keeper or manager shallnot bear civil liability; if the harm occurs through thefault of a third party, the third party shall bear civilliability.

Article 128 A person who causes harm inexercising justifiable defence shall not bear civilliability. If justifiable defence exceeds the limits ofnecessity and undue harm is caused, an appropriate amount ofcivil liability shall be borne.

Article 129 If harm occursthrough emergency actions taken to avoid danger, the personwho gave rise to the danger shall bear civil liability. Ifthe danger arose from natural causes, the person who tookthe emergency actions may either be exempt from civilliability or bear civil liability to an appropriate extent.If the emergency measures taken are improper or exceed thelimits of necessity and undue harm is caused, the person whotook the emergency action shall bear civil liability to anappropriate extent.

Article 130 If two or more personsjointly infringe upon another person's rights and cause himdamage, they shall bear joint liability.

Article 131 If avictim is also at fault for causing the damage, the civilliability of the infringe may be reduced.

Article 132 Ifnone of the parties is at fault in causing damage, they mayshare civil liability according to the actual circumstances.

Article 133 If a person without or with limited capacity forcivil conduct causes damage to others, his guardian shallbear civil liability. If the guardian has done his duty ofguardianship, his civil liability may be appropriatelyreduced. If a person who has property but is without or withlimited capacity for civil conduct causes damage to others,the expenses of compensation shall be paid from hisproperty. Shortfalls in such expenses shall be appropriatelycompensated for by the guardian unless the guardian is aunit.

Section 4 Methods of Bearing Civil Liability

Article134 The main methods of bearing civil liability shall be:(1) cessation of infringements; (2) removal of obstacles;(3) elimination of dangers; (4) return of property; (5)restoration of original condition; (6) repair, reworking orreplacement; (7) compensation for losses; (8) payment ofbreach of contract damages; (9) elimination of ill effectsand rehabilitation of reputation; and (10) extension ofapology. The above methods of bearing civil liability may beapplied exclusively or concurrently. When hearing civilcases, a people's court, in addition to applying the abovestipulations, may serve admonitions, order the offender tosign a pledge of repentance, and confiscate the propertyused in carrying out illegal activities and the illegalincome obtained therefrom. It may also impose fines ordetentions as stipulated by law.

Chapter VIILimitation of Action

Article 135 Except as otherwisestipulated by law, the limitation of action regardingapplications to a people's court for protection of civilrights shall be two years.

Article 136 The limitation ofaction shall be one year in cases concerning the following:(1) claims for compensation for bodily injuries; (2) salesof substandard goods without proper notice to that effect;(3) delays in paying rent or refusal to pay rent; or (4)loss of or damage to property left in the care of anotherperson.

Article 137 A limitation of action shall begin whenthe entitled person knows or should know that his rightshave been infringed upon. However, the people's court shallnot protect his rights if 20 years have passed since theinfringement. Under special circumstances, the people'scourt may extend the limitation of action.

Article 138 If aparty chooses to fulfil obligations voluntarily after thelimitation of action has expired, he shall not be subject tothe limitation.

Article 139 A limitation of action shall besuspended during the last six months of the limitation ifthe plaintiff cannot exercise his right of claim because offorce majeure or other obstacles. The limitation shallresume on the day when the grounds for the suspension areeliminated.

Article 140 A limitation of action shall bediscontinued if suit is brought or if one party makes aclaim for or agrees to fulfillment of obligations. A newlimitation shall be counted from the time of thediscontinuance.

Article 141 If the law has otherstipulations concerning limitation of action, thosestipulations shall apply.

Chapter VIII Applicationof Law in Civil Relations with Foreigners

Article 142 Theapplication of law in civil relations with foreigners shallbe determined by the provisions in this

Chapter. If anyinternational treaty concluded or acceded to by the People'sRepublic of China contains provisions differing from thosein the civil laws of the People's Republic of China, theprovisions of the international treaty shall apply, unlessthe provisions are ones on which the People's Republic ofChina has announced reservations. International practice maybe applied to matters for which neither the law of thePeople's Republic of China nor any international treatyconcluded or acceded to by the People's Republic of Chinahas any provisions.

Article 143 If a citizen of the People'sRepublic of China settles in a foreign country, the law ofthat country may be applicable as regards his capacity forcivil conduct.

Article 144 The ownership of immovableproperty shall be bound by the law of the place where it issituated.

Article 145 The parties to a contract involvingforeign interests may choose the law applicable tosettlement of their contractual disputes, except asotherwise stipulated by law. If the parties to a contractinvolving foreign interests have not made a choice, the lawof the country to which the contract is most closelyconnected shall be applied.

Article 146 The law of the placewhere an infringing act is committed shall apply in handlingcompensation claims for any damage caused by the act. Ifboth parties are citizens of the same country or haveestablished domicile in another country, the law of theirown country or the country of domicile may be applied. Anact committed outside the People's Republic of China shallnot be treated as an infringing act if under the law of thePeople's Republic of China it is not considered aninfringing act.

Article 147 The marriage of a citizen of thePeople's Republic of China to a foreigner shall be bound bythe law of the place where they get married, while a divorceshall be bound by the law of the place where a court acceptsthe case.

Article 148 Maintenance of a spouse after divorceshall be bound by the law of the country to which the spouseis most closely connected.

Article 149 In the statutorysuccession of an estate, movable property shall be bound bythe law of the decedent's last place of residence, andimmovable property shall be bound by the law of the placewhere the property is situated.

Article 150 The applicationof foreign laws or international practice in accordance withthe provisions of this

Chapter shall not violate the publicinterest of the People's Republic of China.

ChapterIX Supplementary provisions

Article 151 The people'scongresses of the national autonomous areas may formulateseparate adaptive or supplementary regulations or provisionsin accordance with the principles of this Law and in lightof the characteristics of the local nationalities. Thoseformulated by the people's congresses of autonomous regionsshall be submitted in accordance with the law to theStanding Committee of the National People's Congress forapproval or for the record. Those formulated by the people'scongresses of autonomous prefectures or autonomous countiesshall be submitted to the standing committee of the people'scongress in the relevant province or autonomous region forapproval.

Article 152 If an enterprise owned by the wholepeople has been established with the approval of thecompetent authority of a province, autonomous region orcentrally administered municipality or at a higher level andit has already been registered with the administrativeagency for industry and commerce, before this Law comes intoforce, it shall automatically qualify as a legal personwithout having to re-register as such.

Article 153 For thepurpose of this Law, "force majeure" means unforeseeable,unavoidable and insurmountable objective conditions.

Article154 Time periods referred to in the Civil Law shall becalculated by the Gregorian calendar in years, months, daysand hours. When a time period is prescribed in hours,calculation of the period shall begin on the prescribedhour. When a time period is prescribed in days, months andyears, the day on which the period begins shall not becounted as within the period; calculation shall begin on thenext day. If the last day of a time period falls on a Sundayor an official holiday, the day after the holiday shall betaken as the last day. The last day shall end at 24:00hours. If business hours are applicable, the last day shallend at closing time.

Article 155 In this Law, the terms "notless than," "not more than," "within" and "expires" shallinclude the given figure; the terms "under" and "beyond"shall not include the given figure.

Article 156 This Lawshall come into force on January 1, 1987.